Kashmir History

Kashmir

This article is about the geographical region of Kashmir. For other uses, see Kashmir (disambiguation).

Political Map: the Kashmir region districts, showing the Pir Panjal range and the Valley of Kashmir.
Ninth-highest: Nanga Parbat, a dangerous mountain to climb, is in the Kashmiri region of Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan
Kashmir (Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Dogri: कश्मीर; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Balti: کشمیر; Gojri: کشمیر; Poonchi/Chibhali: کشمیر; Shina: کشمیر; Uyghur: كەشمىر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It is a disputed territory, claimed by both India and Pakistan, with some areas also claimed by China.
Currently, the name Kashmir is used for the area that includes the Indian administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh), the Pakistani administered Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract. The United Nations[1] and other local entities use the designation Jammu and Kashmir for this area.

According to the Mahabharata,[2] the Iron Age tribe, the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the epic period as a republic[3][4][5] In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose.[6] In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty.[7]
For the next five centuries monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan Durrani Empire that ruled from 1747 until 1820.[7] In that year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[7] In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers.
Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy, or tutelage of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the princely state signed an accession treaty with India after raiders from Pakistan attacked it.[8] India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional[9] until such time as the will of the people could be ascertained by a plebiscite, since Kashmir was recognized as a disputed territory. India applied to the United Nations for a resolution of the issue and a temporary line of control was created. The plebiscite recommended by the UN and promised by India in the Indian White Paper on Kashmir was never conducted due to intransigence on the part of both Indian and Pakistani governments.[9] Pakistan maintained troops in Kashmir despite a U.N. resolution of August 13, 1948 requiring them to withdraw,[10] while the Indian government deemed the holding of a plebiscite as unnecessary because the 1952 elected Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir voted in favor of confirming the Kashmir region's accession to India.[10] Also, since 1947 demographic changes have occurred in the region, with waves of internal migrants from other areas of Pakistan taking residence in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.[10][11] In Indian-administered Kashmir, the demographics of the Kashmir Valley have also been altered after separatist militants coerced a quarter-million Kashmiri Hindus to leave the region.[12][13]

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Etymology

According to the "Nilmat Puran," the oldest book on Kashmir, in the Satisar, a former lake in the Kashmir Valley meaning "lake of the Goddess Sati,"[14] lived a demon called Jalodbhava (meaning "born of water"), who tortured and devoured the people, who lived near mountain slopes.

                                                                           
General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand (the Sun), at Bhawan, ca. 490–555; the colonnade ca. 693–729. Surya Mandir at Martand, Jammu & Kashmir, India, photographed by John Burke, 1868.



[15] Hearing the suffering of the people, Kashyap, an Indian rishi, came to the rescue of the people that lived there.[15] After performing penance for a long time, the saint was blessed, and therefore Lord Vishnu assumed the form of a boar and struck the mountain at Varahamula, boring an opening in it for the water to flow out into the plains below.[16] The lake was drained, the land appeared, and the  demon was killed.[15] The saint encouraged people from India to settle in the valley.[15] As a result of the hero's actions, the people named the valley as "Kashyap-Mar", meaning abode of Kashyap, and "Kashyap-Pura", meaning city of Kashyap, in Sanskrit.[15] The name "Kashmir," in Sanskrit, implies land desiccated from water: "ka" (the water) and shimeera (to desiccate).[15] The ancient Greeks began referring to the region as "Kasperia" and the Chinese pilgrim Hien-Tsang who visited the valley around 631 AD. called it "KaShi-Mi-Lo".[15] In modern times the people of Kashmir have shortened the full Sanskrit name into "Kasheer," which is the colloquial Koshur name of the valley, as noted in Aurel Stein's introduction to the Rajatarangini metrical chronicle.[15]
The "Rajatarangini," a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the 12th century, concurs with Nilmat Puran, stating that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. This lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). Cashmere is a variant spelling of Kashmir, especially within the English language.[17]

 Histroy

 

Main article: History of Kashmir
Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict and Kashmir conflict

Buddhism and Hinduism in Kashmir

Further information: Buddhism in Kashmir

This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE
The Buddhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with having founded the old capital of Kashmir, Shrinagari, now ruins on the outskirts of modern Srinagar. Kashmir was long to be a stronghold of Buddhism.[18]
As a Buddhist seat of learning, the Sarvāstivādan school strongly influenced Kashmir.[19] East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century AD, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.
Adi Shankara visited the pre-existing Sarvajñapīṭha (Sharada Peeth) in Kashmir in late 8th century CE or early 9th century CE. The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam states this temple had four doors for scholars from the four cardinal directions. The southern door (representing South India) had never been opened, indicating that no scholar from South India had entered the Sarvajna Pitha. Adi Shankara opened the southern door by defeating in debate all the scholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines such as Mimamsa, Vedanta and other branches of Hindu philosophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdom of that temple.[20]
Abhinavagupta (approx. 950 - 1020 AD[21][22]) was one of India's greatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was also considered an important musician, poet, dramatist, exeget, theologian, and logician[23][24] - a polymathic personality who exercised strong influences on Indian culture.[25][26] He was born in the Valley of Kashmir[27] in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus.[28] In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is Tantrāloka, an encyclopedic treatise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of Trika and Kaula (known today as Kashmir Shaivism). Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni.[29]


Refrence


  1. ^ http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmogip/
  2. ^ MBH 7.4.5.
  3. ^ MBH 7/91/39-40.
  4. ^ Mahabharata 7.4.5
  5. ^ Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the ..., 1953, p 150, Dr H. C Raychaudhuri - India; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the ..., 1955, p 78, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; An Analytical Study of Four Nikāyas, 1971, p 311, D. K.Barua - Tipiṭaka.
  6. ^ Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Picador. Pp. 572. ISBN 033043909X, p. 110.
  7. ^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93-95.
  8. ^ http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/pakistan-record.shtml
  9. ^ a b http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/plebiscite.shtml
  10. ^ a b c "With Friends Like These...": Human Rights Violations in Azad Kashmir. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,HRW,COUNTRYREP,PAK,,4517b1a14,0.html. Retrieved 2007-12-31. "In January 1949, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was deployed to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan. UNMOGIP's functions were to investigate complaints of ceasefire violations and submit finding to each party and to the U.N. secretary-general. Under the terms of the ceasefire, it was decided that both armies would withdraw and a plebiscite would be held in Kashmir to give Kashmiris the right to self-determination. The primary argument for the continuing debate over the ownership of Kashmir is that India did not hold the promised plebiscite. In fact, neither side has adhered to the U.N. resolution of August 13, 1948; while India chose not to hold the plebiscite, Pakistan also failed to withdraw its troops from Kashmir as was required under the resolution.19 Instead, India cites the 1952 elected Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir, which voted in favor of confirming accession to India. New Delhi also says that since Kashmiris have voted in successive national elections in India, there is no need for a plebiscite. The 1948-49 U.N. resolutions can no longer be applied, according to India, because of changes in the original territory, with some parts "having been handed over to China by Pakistan and demographic changes having been effected [sic] in Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas."" 
  11. ^ From Jinnah to Jihad: Pakistan's Kashmir quest and the limits of realism. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd.. http://books.google.com/books?id=iaYPyVAjHH8C&pg=PA4&dq=demographics+pakistan+altered+kashmir&hl=en&ei=R5DnTNvTF8P48Abf1KScDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2007-12-31. "While India had agreed to a plebiscite initially, it reneged, arguing that Pakistan had refused to withdraw its troops, had integrated parts of Kashmir with the rest of the country and had altered their demographic system." 
  12. ^ Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh: ringside views. http://books.google.com/books?id=QDYhj5IQJrsC&pg=PA35&dq=Pakistan+kashmir+demographics&hl=en&ei=1JLnTNLvKcP_lgeRwfn7Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Pakistan%20kashmir%20demographics&f=false. Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Demographics (1947-48) considered for this UN resolution have changed, most recently with the exodus of a 1/4 million Hindus from Kashmir." 
  13. ^ Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh: ringside views. http://books.google.com/books?id=QDYhj5IQJrsC&pg=PA35&dq=Pakistan+kashmir+demographics&hl=en&ei=1JLnTNLvKcP_lgeRwfn7Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Pakistan%20kashmir%20demographics&f=false. Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Indians are free to migrate as anyone else in democracy. Yet, as a large group, non of the post partition (1947) minorities have relocated to India or migrated to Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, or anywhere else in the world under the threat of persecution of insecurity. Ironically, it was those 1/4 million Hindus of Kashmir that experienced an exodus within India from Kashmir due to the hostile environment created by the militancy in Kashmir." 
  14. ^ Bansi Pandit. Explore Kashmiri Pandits. Dharma Publications. http://books.google.com/books?id=zsoC6GWr47QC&pg=PA17&dq=kashmir+kashyap&hl=en&ei=RSHCTMKJEoep8AaIh_jABg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&sqi=2&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=kashmir%20kashyap&f=false. Retrieved 2010-07-01. "According to the Nilmat Purana, the sixth century Sanskrit Classic, the present day Kashmir valley was a large lake (called Satisar, meaning 'the lake of Goddess Sati', the consort of Lord Shiva) surrounded by gigantic snow peaked mountains. The lake was inhabitaed by a giant demon, called Jalodbhava (i.e., 'born of water'). He devoured and terrotized the Nagas (Aborigines/Tribes), who lived in the mountains surrounding the lake. It is said that the Kashyap Rishi (grandson of Lord Brahma, the creator of the universe) once went on a pilgrimage to Kashmir. When he reached Naukabandan (ancient town) near Kaunsarnag (in Pulwama District of South Kashmir), the Nagas appealed to him for help. Since the demon was invincible within water, the Rishi performed great penance to secure divine intervention. His prayer was granted and Lord Vishnu (Hindu Deity of preservation and maintenance of the universe), assuming the form of a boar (varah), pierced the mountain to the west of the lake at a place called Varahamula (present Baramulla) with his trident and water drained away through the resulting gorge. As the lake dried, Jalodbhava could not hide any more and was killed by the gods. The valley that emerged from draining the lake came to be known as Kashyap Mar, meaning, 'the abode of Kashyap." In the language of the people over a period of time, Kashyap Mar became 'Kashmir', the present name of the valley." 
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h S.C. Bhatt, Gopal Bhargava. Land & People of Indian States & Union Territories. Kalpaz Publications. http://books.google.com/books?id=tuYsVSY44O0C&pg=PA23&dq=kashmir+kashyap&hl=en&ei=NhrCTNLSMI-q8AbsoMTXBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q=kashmir%20kashyap&f=false. Retrieved 2010-07-01. "According to the oldest extant book on Kashmir, "Nilmat Puran", in the Satisar lived a demon called Jalod Bowa, who tortured and devoured the people, who lived near mountain slopes. Hearing the suffering of the people, a great saint of our country, Kashyap by name, came to the rescue of the people here. After performing penance for a long time, the saint was blessed, and he was able to cut the mountain near Varahmulla, which blocked the water of the lake from flowing into the plains below. The lake was drained, the land appeared, and the demon was killed. The saint encouraged people from India to settle in the valley. The people named the valley as Kashyap-Mar and Kashyap-Pura. The name Kashmir also implies land desicated from water: "ka" (the water) and shimeera (to desicate). The ancient Greeks called it "Kasperia" and the Chinese pilgrim Hien-Tsang who visited the valley around 631 A.D. called it "KaShi-Mi-Lo". In modern times the people of Kashmir have shortened it into "Kasheer" in their tongue." 
  16. ^ Kashmir and it's people: studies in the evolution of Kashmiri society. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. http://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA6&dq=Baramulla+boar&hl=en&ei=n9i_TNHMIYK7nge0mcjlCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Baramulla%20boar&f=false. Retrieved 2010-07-01. "That the valley of Kashmir was once a vast lake, known as "Satisaras", the lake of Parvati (consort of Shiva), is enshrined in our traditions. There are many mythological stories connected with the desiccation of the lake, before the valley was fit for habitation. The narratives make it out that it was occupied by a demon 'Jalodbhava', till Lord Vishnu assumed the form of a boar and struck the mountain at Baramulla (ancient Varahamula) boring an opening in it for the water to flow out." 
  17. ^ "Kashmir." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989.
  18. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, page 256.
  19. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, pages 263-264.
  20. ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 186–195. 
  21. ^ Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12
  22. ^ Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27
  23. ^ Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4
  24. ^ Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169
  25. ^ The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, page 12
  26. ^ Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89
  27. ^ Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V
  28. ^ Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35
  29. ^ Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page LXXVII
  30. ^ Muhammad Qãsim Hindû Shãh Firishta : Tãrîkh-i-Firishta, translated by John Briggs under the title "History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India." First published in 1829, New Delhi Reprint 1981.
  31. ^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. "Kashmir: History." pp. 94-95.
  32. ^ Treaty of Amritsar, March 16, 1846.
  33. ^ From the text of the Treaty of Amritsar, signed March 16, 1846.
  34. ^ a b Bowers, Paul. 2004. "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.
  35. ^ Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.
  36. ^ a b c Stein, Burton. 1998. A History of India. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. ISBN 0195654463. Page 368.
  37. ^ a b c d e Sayyid Mīr Qāsim. My Life and Times. Allied Publishers Limited. http://books.google.com/books?id=KNFJKap8YxwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=My+life+and+times+By+Sayyid+M%C4%ABr+Q%C4%81sim&source=bl&ots=QelHViveYB&sig=59zRr-XTYB8srl0zs3A_CyfCabI&hl=en&ei=OAnCTM3rKsT48Aa7rajhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2010-07-01. "On the battlefield, the National Conference volunteers were working shoulder-to-shoulder with the Indian army to drive out the invaders. On December 31, 1947, India filed a complaint with the United Nations against the Pakistani aggression and its help to the invading tribesmen. Sheikh Abdullah was not in favour of India seeking the UN intervention because he was sure the Indian army could free the entire State of the invaders. As the subsequent events showed, the UNO by procrastinating, only messed up the Kashmir issue. It called for withdrawal of troops on April 21, 1948. The Indian army had driven the Pakistani invaders up to Uri in Kashmir and Poonch in Jammu when ceasefire was ordered in December 1948. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan had died by this stage. Both India and Pakistan accepted the ceasefire." 
  38. ^ a b c Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  39. ^ a b "Major Events". Jammu and Kashmir Government, India. http://jammukashmir.nic.in/profile/majev.htm#1. Retrieved 2007-01-09. 
  40. ^ "A Comprehensive Note on Jammu & Kashmir: The Northern Areas". Embassy of India, Washington D.C.. http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/Kashmir/Kashmir_MEA/Northern_Areas.html. Retrieved 2007-01-09. 
  41. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312921/Vale-of-Kashmir
  42. ^ a b Jina, Prem Singh (1996). Ladakh: The Land and the People. Indus Publishing. ISBN 8173870578. 
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h i Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99-102.
  44. ^ a b Rai, Mridu. 2004. Hindu Ruler, Muslim Subjects: Islam and the History of Kashmir. Princeton University Press. 320 pages. ISBN 0691116881. p. 37.
  45. ^ a b BBC. 2003. The Future of Kashmir? In Depth.
  46. ^ Brush, J. E. 1949. "The Distribution of Religious Communities in India" Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 39(2):81-98.
  47. ^ CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues
  48. ^ Iftikhar Gilani (2008-10-22). "Italian company to pursue oil exploration in Kashmir". Daily Times. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\10\22\story_22-10-2008_pg7_41. Retrieved 2009-11-20. 
  49. ^ Ishfaq-ul-Hassan (2008-02-22). "India, Pakistan to explore oil jointly". Daily News and Analysis. http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-pakistan-to-explore-oil-jointly_1152227. Retrieved 2009-11-20. 
  50. ^ Hussain, Altaf (30 May 2005). "Peace brings Kashmir tourists back". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4593655.stm. Retrieved 28 November 2010. 
  51. ^ "The pilgrimage to Amarnath". 6 August 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2176165.stm. Retrieved 28 November 2010. 

Further reading

  • Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root," Foreign Affairs, 78,6 (November/December 1999): 36-42.
  • Drew, Federic. 1877. “The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971.
  • Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won’t Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170-175.
  • Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective", National Institute of Pakistan Studies.
  • Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir August 24–25, 1997: University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997.
  • Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999).
  • Khan, L. Ali The Kashmir Dispute: A Plan for Regional Cooperation 31 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994).
  • Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
  • Knight, William, Henry. 1863. Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet. Richard Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services, New Delhi.
  • Köchler, Hans. The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008.
  • Lamb, Hertingfordbury, UK: Roxford Books,1994, "Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy.
  • Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
  • Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown - but the 16th edition was published in 1938).
  • Schofield, Victoria. 1996. Kashmir in the Crossfire. London: I B Tauris.
  • Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
  • Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.
  • Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; ISBN 0-945747-00-4. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 - April 2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation. [1]
  • Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Ita Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947-1999) Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.

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